Abstract: Buildings rarely perform as intended, resulting in energy use that is higher than anticipated. Building commissioning has emerged as a strategy for remedying this problem in non-residential buildings. Complementing traditional hardware-based energy savings strategies, commissioning is a ?soft? process of verifying performance and design intent and correcting deficiencies. Through an evaluation of a series of field projects, this report explores the efficacy of an emerging refinement of this practice, known as monitoring-based commissioning (MBCx). MBCx can also be thought of as monitoring-enhanced building operation that incorporates three components: 1) Permanent energy information systems (EIS) and diagnostic tools at the whole-building and sub-system level; 2) Retro-commissioning based on the information from these tools and savings accounting emphasizing measurement as opposed to estimation or assumptions; and 3) On-going commissioning to ensure efficient building operations and measurement-based savings accounting. MBCx is thus a measurement-based paradigm which affords improved risk-management by identifying problems and opportunities that are missed with periodic commissioning.

The analysis presented in this report is based on in-depth benchmarking of a portfolio of MBCx energy savings for 24 buildings located throughout the University of California and California State University systems. In the course of the analysis, we developed a quality-control/quality-assurance process for gathering and evaluating raw data from project sites and then selected a number of metrics to use for project benchmarking and evaluation, including appropriate normalizations for weather and climate, accounting for variations in central plant performance, and consideration of differences in building types. We performed a cost-benefit analysis of the resulting dataset, and provided comparisons to projects from a larger commissioning ?Meta-analysis? database.

Abstract: Data centers are among the most energy intensive types of facilities, and they are growing dramatically in terms of size and intensity [EPA 2007]. As a result, in the last few years there has been increasing interest from stakeholders - ranging from data center managers to policy makers - to improve the energy efficiency of data centers, and there are several industry and government organizations that have developed tools, guidelines, and training programs.

There are many opportunities to reduce energy use in data centers and benchmarking studies reveal a wide range of efficiency practices. Data center operators may not be aware of how efficient their facility may be relative to their peers, even for the same levels of service. Benchmarking is an effective way to compare one facility to another, and also to track the performance of a given facility over time.

Toward that end, this article presents the key metrics that facility managers can use to assess, track, and manage the efficiency of the infrastructure systems in data centers, and thereby identify potential efficiency actions. Most of the benchmarking data presented in this article are drawn from the data center benchmarking database at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). The database was developed from studies commissioned by the California Energy Commission, Pacific Gas and Electric Co., the U.S. Department of Energy and the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.

Abstract: This document presents the results of a review of publicly available information on energy use in health care facilities. The information contained in this document and in the sources cited herein provides the background and context for efforts to reduce energy use and costs in health care. Recognizing the breadth and diversity of relevant information, the author acknowledges that the report is likely not comprehensive. It is intended only to present a broad picture of what is currently known about health care energy use.

This review was conducted as part of a ?High Performance Health Care Buildings? research study funded by the California Energy Commission. The study was motivated by the recognition that health care facilities collectively account for a substantial fraction of total commercial building energy use, due in large part to the very high energy intensity of hospitals and other inpatient care facilities. The goal of the study was to develop a roadmap of research, development and deployment (RD&D) needs for the health care industry. In addition to this information review, the road map development process included interviews with industry experts and a full-day workshop at LBNL in March 2009.

This report is described as ?Version 1? with the intent that it will be expanded and updated as part of an ongoing LBNL program in healthcare energy efficiency. The document is being released in this form with the hope that it can assist others in finding and accessing the resources described within.

Abstract: This document describes an energy benchmarking framework for hospitals. The document is organized as follows. The introduction provides a brief primer on benchmarking and its application to hospitals. The next two sections discuss special considerations including the identification of normalizing factors. The presentation of metrics is preceded by a description of the overall framework and the rationale for the grouping of metrics. Following the presentation of metrics, a high-level protocol is provided. The next section presents draft benchmarks for some metrics; benchmarks are not available for many metrics owing to a lack of data. This document ends with a list of research needs for further development.

Abstract: This document presents a road map for improving the energy efficiency of hospitals and other healthcare facilities. The report compiles input from a broad array of experts in healthcare facility design and operations. The initial section lists challenges and barriers to efficiency improvements in healthcare. Opportunities are organized around the following ten themes: understanding and benchmarking energy use; best practices and training; codes and standards; improved utilization of existing HVAC designs and technology; innovation in HVAC design and technology; electrical system design; lighting; medical equipment and process loads; economic and organizational issues; and the design of next generation sustainable hospitals. Achieving energy efficiency will require a broad set of activities including research, development, deployment, demonstration, training, etc., organized around 48 specific objectives. Specific activities are prioritized in consideration of potential impact, likelihood of near- or mid-term feasibility and anticipated cost-effectiveness. This document is intended to be broad in consideration though not exhaustive. Opportunities and needs are identified and described with the goal of focusing efforts and resources.

Abstract: The 2006 Commercial End Use Survey (CEUS) database developed by the California Energy Commission is a far richer source of energy end-use data for non-residential buildings than has previously been available and opens the possibility of creating new and more powerful energy benchmarking processes and tools. In this article - Part 2 of a two-part series - we describe the methodology and selected results from an action-oriented benchmarking approach using the new CEUS database. This approach goes beyond whole-building energy benchmarking to more advanced end-use and component-level benchmarking that enables users to identify and prioritize specific energy efficiency opportunities - an improvement on benchmarking tools typically in use today.

Abstract: A wide spectrum of laboratory owners, ranging from universities to federal agencies, have explicit goals for energy efficiency in their facilities. For example, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005) requires all new federal buildings to exceed ASHRAE 90.1-2004 by at least 30%. A new laboratory is much more likely to meet energy efficiency goals if quantitative metrics and targets are specified in programming documents and tracked during the course of the delivery process. If not, any additional capital costs or design time associated with attaining higher efficiencies can be difficult to justify.

This article describes key energy efficiency metrics and benchmarks for laboratories, which have been developed and applied to several laboratory buildings - both for design and operation. In addition to traditional whole building energy use metrics (e.g. BTU/ft2.yr, kWh/m2.yr), the article describes HVAC system metrics (e.g. ventilation W/cfm, W/L.s-1), which can be used to identify the presence or absence of energy features and opportunities during design and operation.

Abstract: Most energy benchmarking tools provide static feedback on how one building compares to a larger set of loosely similar buildings, without providing information at the end-use level or on what can be done to reduce consumption, cost, or emissions. In this article - Part 1 of a two-part series - we describe an "action-oriented benchmarking" approach, which extends whole-building energy benchmarking to include analysis of system and component energy use metrics and features. Action-oriented benchmarking thereby allows users to generate more meaningful metrics and to identify, screen and prioritize potential efficiency improvements. This opportunity assessment process can then be used to inform and optimize a full-scale audit or commissioning process. We introduce a new web-based action-oriented benchmarking system and associated software tool - EnergyIQ. The benchmarking methods, visualizations, and user interface design are informed by an end-user needs assessment survey and best-practice guidelines from ASHRAE.

Abstract: Laboratories, cleanrooms and data centers are very energy-intensive. For example, laboratories are typically three to eight times as energy intensive as a typical office build in g, and a data center may be as much as 20-50 times as energy intensive as a typical office building.

This technical note presents an estimate of the total energy use in laboratories, cleanrooms and data centers in New York. There is generally very limited data on energy use in the high tech sector, both at the national and state level. Since it was beyond the scope of this project to develop primary data through surveys, the analysis relied primarily on the use of proxy indicators and extrapolation from national data where available.

Abstract: Standard design and operating practice for laboratory ventilation systems usually results in system static pressure setpoints that are higher than actually required. Dynamically optimizing system static pressure can reduce energy use and improve airflow control in laboratories. Recent results at EPA?s Research Triangle Park Facility in Durham, North Carolina show a 15% reduction in annual energy costs with a simple payback of about 2 years.

Abstract: This publication is an update of the draft standard laboratory method previously developed and published to evaluate fan-filter (FFU) operation.

This updated document includes the newly refined standard laboratory method, with the addition of test procedures, modeling methods, and a reporting form to characterize the functionality, operation, and control of individual fan filter units. The standard methods benefit from a review of open literature on relevant industrial and international standards, recommended practices, publications, and guidelines. This new document builds upon past work, and integrates new knowledge gained from experiments that were designed and conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL).

Abstract: A leading industrial standards writing organization since 1953, IEST has established seven tracks of Recommended Practices (RP) in the Standards and Practices (S&P) portion of the Contamination Control (CC) program, including the most recent program in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. In addition, there are other parallel activities in IEST?s Design, Test, and Evaluation and Product Reliability division. Within each of these programs, scientists, engineers, and contamination control professionals from all over the world interact closely in working group meetings, seminars, and tutorials. Together they have developed, published, and disseminated technical information and industrial standards, including RPs, Reference Documents (RDs), and ISO Standards to address ever evolving challenges in contamination control and sustainable development of the industries served by IEST.

Abstract: Fan-filter unit systems are used for re-circulating clean air in cleanrooms are gaining popularity in California as well as in the rest of the world. Under normal operation, fan-filter units require high power demand, typically ranging from 100 to 300 W per square meter of cleanroom floor area (or approximately 10-30 W/ft2). Operating 7 by 24, they normally consume significant electric energy, while providing required contamination control for cleanrooms in various industries. Previous studies focused on development of a standard test procedure for fan-filter units. This project is to improve the methods, and develop new information to demonstrate the methods can be used to assist the industries to apply more energy-efficient fan-filter units in cleanrooms.

Specifically this project expands previous developmental activities of a test protocol to characterize a pool of 17-sample fan-filter units (FFUs) recruited from Asia, Europe, and North America. Through laboratory experiments and modeling, the project develop and demonstrate means of identifying and applying existing or new filtration techniques with higher energy efficiency in the market. All the FFUs had a nominal size of 61-cm-by-122-cm (2-ft by 4-ft). We established a new testing facility, performed new laboratory test using a refined test method, conducted data analyses, developed models to characterize energy performance of the 17 FFUs. Based upon the laboratory test results, we developed a relative ranking system to compare energy efficiency of the FFUs, and recommended options of formulating initial energy-incentive criteria for consideration and use in utility companies' future rebate programs.

Abstract: Part 1 - Case Studies on Two Co-location Data Centers (No. 16 and 17): Data Centers #16 and #17 were located in a four-story building in San Francisco, California. The data center building had a total floor area of approximately 97,900 ft2 with 2-foot raised-floors in the data services area. Two out of eight data centers in the building were occupied by computers and equipment, and were in operation at the time of the study conducted between October 15 and October 22, 2004.

Part 2 - Case Studies on Two Co-location Network Data Centers (No. 18 and 19): Two data centers in this study were within a co-location facility located on the sixth floor of a multi-story building in downtown Los Angeles, California. The facility had 37,758 gross square feet floor area with 2-foot raised-floors in the data services area. The two data centers were designated as the west data center (DC #18) and the east data center (DC #19).

Part 3 - Case Study on an IT Equipment-testing Center (No. 20): The data center in this study had a total floor area of 3,024 square feet (ft2) with one-foot raised-floors. It was a rack lab with 147 racks, and was located in a 96,000 ft2 multi-story office building in San Jose, California. Since the data center was used only for testing equipment, it was not configured as a critical facility in terms of electrical and cooling supply. It did not have a dedicated chiller system but was served by the main building chiller plant and make-up air system. Additionally it was served by only a single electrical supply with no provision for backup power in the event of a power outage. The Data Center operated on a 24 hour per day, year-round cycle, and users had full-hour access to the data center facility.

Part 4 - Case Study on Computer-testing Center (No. 21):The data center in this study had a total floor area of 8,580 square feet (ft2) with one-foot raised-floors. It was a rack lab with 440 racks, and was located in a 208,240 ft2 multi-story office building in San Jose, California. Since the data center was used only for testing equipment, it was not configured as a critical facility in terms of electrical and cooling supply. It did not have a dedicated chiller system but served by the main building chiller plant and make-up air system. Additionally, it was served by a single electrical supply with no provision for backup power. The data center operated on a 24 hour per day, year-round cycle, and users had all hour full access to the data center facility.

Part 5 - Case Study on a Corporate Data Center (No. 22): The data center in this study had a total floor area of 10,000 square feet (ft2) with one-foot raised-floors. The data center housed 377 computer racks, and was located in a 110,000-ft2 office building in Pasadena, California. However, the raised-floor was not utilized for cold air distribution. Communications and power wiring and fire sprinkler were located within the space above the ceiling. There were two standby generators, each rated at 1500 kW/kVA providing backup power supporting all building loads.

Abstract: For many federal facilities, the fastest growing end-use of electric energy is found in concentrations of computing capacity commonly known as data centers. For these users, the critical importance of information processing to their agency mission will present a serious challenge to meeting the aggressive new energy efficiency goals in Executive Order 13423. Federal energy managers can find a variety of methods for reducing energy intensity, in both design and operations, for these high-technology facilities <http://hightech.lbl.gov/datacenters.html>. This report summarizes a recent demonstration of one such technique ? configuring power supply systems for data centers so that they use DC (direct current) power throughout, eliminating the conventional practice of multiple conversions from utility-supplied AC (alternating current) to DC and back again at every stage of the power supply system. This eliminates both the power loss and heat generated by each such conversion (which drives air conditioning energy use).

The demonstration suggests that direct powering, coupled with selection of high-efficiency power-supply components, can result in as much as 30% improvement in power conversion and distribution to IT equipment as well as overall facility level efficiency, when compared to a typical AC-powered data center. Data do not exist for more than the broadest ballpark estimate of energy use in federal centers, which suggests an order-of-magnitude figure of as much as 6 TWh/year. While data processing equipment decisions are made on the basis of many criteria other than energy efficiency, and no systematic effort was made in this demonstration to estimate the cost-effectiveness of retrofit of power supplies, this demonstration does suggest that federal data centers could potentially be using as much as 1.8 TWh/year less energy.

Abstract: Energy benchmarking is useful in comparing performance of data center facilities, and can be a powerful tool to help identify why certain energy intensive systems perform better than others. Through studies of over 22 data centers, when analyzing how the better performing systems achieved better efficiency, a number of "Best Practices" were evident. Five of the Best Practices that can have a large impact on overall energy efficiency in a data center are discussed in detail using benchmark comparisons and examples from case study reports and Utility demonstration projects.

Data center infrastructure is characterized by specialized HVAC and electrical distribution systems which often include redundancy for reliability. How systems are sized, designed, and operated can have a large impact on capital and operating cost. The Best Practices described here can provide guidance for future new or retrofit design.

Abstract: Laboratory facilities present a unique challenge for energy efficient and sustainable design, with their inherent complexity of systems, health and safety requirements, long-term flexibility and adaptability needs, energy use intensity, and environmental impacts. The typical laboratory is anywhere from 3-8 times as energy intensive as a typical office building and costs about three times as much per unit area.

Abstract: Fan filter units (FFU) are widely used to deliver re-circulated air while providing filtration control of particle concentration in controlled environments such as cleanrooms, minienvironments, and operating rooms in hospitals. The objective of this paper is to document an innovative method for characterizing operation and control of an individual fan filter unit within its operable conditions. Built upon the draft laboratory method previously published, this paper presents an updated method including a testing procedure to characterize dynamic operation of fan filter units, i.e., steady-state operation conditions determined by varied control schemes, airflow rates, and pressure differential across the units. The parameters for dynamic characterization include total electric power demand, total pressure efficiency, airflow rate, pressure differential across fan filter units, and airflow uniformity.

Abstract: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) is now finalizing the Phase 2 Research and Demonstration Project on characterizing 2-foot x 4-foot (61-cm x 122-cm) fan-filter units in the market using the first-ever standard laboratory test method developed at LBNL.

Fan-filter units deliver re-circulated air and provide particle filtration control for clean environments. Much of the energy in cleanrooms (and minienvironments) is consumed by 2-foot x 4-foot (61-cm x 122-cm) or 4-foot x 4-foot (122-cm x 122-cm) fan-filter units that are typically located in the ceiling (25-100% coverage) of cleanroom controlled environments.

Abstract: There is a considerable body of research that describes the impact of the visual quality of the work environment on worker comfort, health, and productivity. The appropriate design of lighting systems is especially important in laboratories, given the intensity and significance of work carried out in laboratories and the long work hours spent by researchers. In addition, the lighting energy intensity in laboratories is up to twice that of a typical office space. Lighting energy use typically accounts for between 8% and 25% of total electricity use, depending on the percentage of lab area. While not a significant percentage compared to HVAC systems, it nonetheless provides several opportunities for energy efficiency.

Abstract: Traditional cleanroom filtration design and operation relies upon high recirculation air change rates as a means of maintaning acceptable contamination control. Cleanroom professionals accept recommended air-change rates that were established somewhat arbitrarily as rules of thumb. The guidelines were based upon historically adequate cleanroom conditions, but they were not optimized. Disadvantages of this practice include paying a high cost for excessive airflow, as is usually the case, but also production or other work in the cleanroom could be adversely affected by too much or too little airflow. This paper describes research and several case study projects that suggest that control of recirculation airflow by monitoring cleanliness, or other control strategies, is a viable means to improve energy efficiency. One strategy being researched by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Cornell University in separate projects involves use of particle encounters to continuously measure particle counts to automatically control recirculation air handlers using the building control system. Given that people are the number one source of contamination in cleanrooms, other less sophisticated strategies, such as timed setback or use of occupancy sensors to reduce airflow, have also been studied. This paper discusses the energy-saving potential for routine use of these methods and provides case study results where setbacks strategies were successfully in use.

Abstract: The HVAC systems in cleanrooms may use 50 percent or more of the total cleanroom energy use. Fan energy use accounts for a significant portion (e.g., over 50%) of the HVAC energy use in cleanrooms such as ISO Classes 3, 4, or 5. Three types of air-handling systems for recirculating airflows are commonly used in cleanrooms: 1) fan-tower systems with pressurized plenum, 2) ducted HEPA systems with distributed-fans, and 3) systems with fan-filter units. Because energy efficiency of the recirculation systems could vary significantly from system type to system type, optimizing aerodynamic performance in air recirculation systems appears to be a useful approach to improve energy efficiency in cleanrooms.

Providing optimal airflows through careful planning, design and operation, including air change rate, airflow uniformity, and airflow speed, is important for controlling particle contamination in cleanrooms. In practice, the use of fan-filter units (FFUs) in the air-handling system is becoming more and more popular because of this type of system may offer a number of advantages. Often modular and portable than traditional recirculation airflow systems, FFUs are easier to install, and can be easily controlled and monitored to maintain filtration performance. Energy efficiency of air handling systems using fan-filter units can, however, be lower than their counterparts and may vary significantly from system to system because of the difference in energy performance, airflow paths, and the operating conditions of FFUs.

Abstract: Cleanroom air-recirculation systems typically account for a significant portion of the HVAC energy use in cleanrooms. High electric power density is normally required for fans to deliver large volume of airflows that were designed, supplied, recirculated, and exhausted within a given time. With the increasing demand for specific contamination control, it is important to optimize design of clean spaces. Best practice in cleanroom air system design includes right-sizing the systems in cleanrooms and adopting minienvironments. Implementing and integrating minienvironments in cleanrooms can improve contamination control and save significant energy.

Abstract: Cleanroom energy benchmarking data shows that chiller plant designs and operating efficiencies varied significantly from cleanroom to cleanroom. While system optimization is critical to the overall energy efficiency of chiller plants, the operating efficiency of chilled water and condenser pumps, along with chiller efficiency and cooling tower efficiency, is a major factor in the overall system efficiency. The design and operating efficiency of water pumps directly affects energy use for such facilities.

Figure 1 shows benchmarked HVAC energy end use in a semiconductor cleanroom facility. In this case, the water pumps collectively accounted for 17% of the total energy use. Figure 2 shows the electric power demand of the components in a chiller plant system. Pumps accounted for 18% of the total power demand for the whole chiller plant. It is important to design, select, operate, and control water-pumping systems to achieve high efficiency and to lower life-cycle costs for cleanrooms and their adjacent spaces.

Abstract: Cleanroom energy benchmarking data shows that there is a variety of chiller plant designs and operating efficiency for cleanroom facilities. Chiller plants usually serve cleanroom facility and adjacent spaces simultaneously and use significant energy and water. The efficiency level of the overall chiller plant is influenced by the efficiency of individual components and subsystems in the plant. Major components include chillers, water pumps, and cooling tower or condenser fans. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show chiller energy end-use in typical semiconductor cleanroom facilities. In both cases, the portion of chiller energy usage was significant. It is, therefore, important to design, select, operate, and control chillers to achieve high efficiency and to lower life-cycle costs for cleanrooms and their adjacent spaces.

Abstract: Cleanroom energy benchmarking data shows that there is a variety of chilled water system designs and operation efficiency for cleanroom facilities in high-tech industries. Operating efficiency of chilled water systems is critical to the overall energy efficiency of the chiller plant, which may have a significant impact on energy use for such facilities.

Together with fans for delivering air to and from cleanrooms, chiller plants usually serve cleanroom facility and adjacent spaces simultaneously and use significant energy and water. Figure 1 shows benchmarked HVAC energy usage in a semiconductor cleanroom facility. In this case, the chillers and pumps account for more than half of the total HVAC energy use. Therefore, it is important to design, select, operate, and control chiller plants to achieve high efficiency and to lower life-cycle costs for cleanrooms and their adjacent spaces.

Abstract: Cleanroom energy benchmarking data shows that chiller plant designs and operation efficiency varied a great deal in cleanroom facilities. Operating efficiency of cooling tower and condenser optimization is critical to the overall energy efficiency of the chiller plant, which has a significant impact on energy use for such facilities.sTogether with fans for delivering air to and from cleanrooms, chiller plants usually serve cleanroom facility and adjacent spaces simultaneously and use significant energy and water. Figure 1 shows benchmarked HVAC energy usages in a semiconductor cleanroom facility. In this case, the cooling towers, water pumps, and chillers account for more than half of the total HVAC energy use. Therefore, it is important to design, select, operate, and control each of the plant components to achieve high efficiency and to lower life-cycle costs for cleanrooms and their adjacent spaces.

Abstract: A minienvironment is a localized environment created by an enclosure to isolate a product or process from the surrounding environment. Minienvironments have been gaining popularity to provide effective containment for critical contamination control. The use of minienvironments can provide several orders of magnitude improvement in particle cleanliness levels, while energy intensity may be shifted from the conventional cleanroom systems to the minienvironments that enclose the specific process. The purpose of this paper is to study the energy performance of a minienvironment air system in a ballroom setting, to quantify power density of such a system, and to identify areas for energy savings from high-performance minienvironments.

Abstract: In order to identify and pursue energy efficiency opportunities associated with cleanrooms, it is necessary to understand the design and operation of cleanroom systems for specific contamination control requirements. With the industrial trend toward more stringent cleanliness class and tightening clean spaces, it is vital to understand the design of minienvironment and the operational performance of its systems. A good understanding of such system performance would help to identify opportunities in efficient energy end-use and wise allocation of resources associated with processes or productions that require minienvironments and cleanrooms. This report summarizes a case study on energy performance of a common minienvironment used in semiconductor industry, and discusses the opportunities in saving energy, in particular, the opportunities in achieving efficient operation and design that entails applications of minienvironments.

Abstract: With the expectation that the development of a standard method or procedure for testing and reporting performance of fan-filter units (FFUs) will continue in the industry, LBNL proposed to provide technical assistance in the testing method development in this project.

At the early stage of this project, LBNL investigated the levels of interests, expertise, and resources of a list of standard-setting organizations, which potentially would be interested in developing a national, voluntary standard for testing the performance of FFUs. LBNL communicated with the officials or members in the following organizations: Air Movement and Control Association International (AMCA), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), American Society for Testing and Material International (ASTM International), Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), and other relevant entities. Based upon the evaluation of the levels of interests, availability of expertise and resources, we identified the following key parties and players:

- Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI), Taiwan.

- The Air Movement and Control Association International (AMCA).

- Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST).

- FFU suppliers and users.

Upon further discussion with the interested parties, and stakeholders that include the members of the Project Advisory Committee and the California Energy Commission, LBNL decided to interact closely with these key players and to develop a draft standard method for testing and reporting energy performance of fan-filter units.

In November 2003, IEST created and formalized a Working Group (WG) consisting of approximately twenty or more experts associated with the industries, standard-setting entities including AMCA, and the government. The IEST WG started to develop the scope of an industrial Recommended Practice (RP) document on the standard method for testing FFU performance. The WG, which is titled Testing Fan Filter Unit, has since met twice a year and established the collaboration and made voluntary effort by the WG members to develop a Recommended Practice (RP) document for testing FFUs in laboratory setting.

Establishing a testing method to consistently report the energy performance of fan-filter units (FFU"s) will help cleanroom owners and designers to make informed choices that consider energy efficiency among other important considerations. Being able to providing comparative performance information to owners and designers can facilitate the selection of more energy efficient FFU models. Energy efficiency practice can be encouraged through utility incentive programs, which can be made possible by using the performance data reported from standardized testing, or by establishing minimal performance rating criteria.

Abstract: Laboratory equipment such as autoclaves, glass washers, refrigerators, and computers account for a significant portion of the energy use in laboratories. However, because of the general lack of measured equipment load data for laboratories, designers often use estimates based on "nameplate" rated data, or design assumptions from prior projects. Consequently, peak equipment loads are frequently overestimated. This results in oversized HVAC systems, increased initial construction costs, and increased energy use due to inefficiencies at low part-load operation. This best-practice guide first presents the problem of over-sizing in typical practice, and then describes how best-practice strategies obtain better estimates of equipment loads and right-size HVAC systems, saving initial construction costs as well as life-cycle energy costs.

This guide is one in a series created by the Laboratories for the 21st century ("Labs21") program, a joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy. Geared towards architects, engineers, and facilities managers, these guides provide information about technologies and practices to use in designing, constructing, and operating safe, sustainable, high-performance laboratories.

Abstract: HVAC systems that are designed without properly accounting for equipment load variation across laboratory spaces in a facility can significantly increase simultaneous heating and cooling, particularly for systems that use zone reheat for temperature control. This best practice guide describes the problem of simultaneous heating and cooling resulting from load variations, and presents several technological and design process strategies to minimize it.

This guide is one in a series created by the Laboratories for the 21st century ("Labs21") program, a joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy. Geared towards architects, engineers, and facilities managers, these guides provide information about technologies and practices to use in designing, constructing, and operating safe, sustainable, high-performance laboratories.

Abstract: Data Center facilities, prevalent in many industries and institutions are essential to California"s economy. Energy intensive data centers are crucial to California"s industries, and many other institutions (such as universities) in the state, and they play an important role in the constantly evolving communications industry. To better understand the impact of the energy requirements and energy efficiency improvement potential in these facilities, the California Energy Commission"s PIER Industrial Program initiated this project with two primary focus areas: First, to characterize current data center electricity use; and secondly, to develop a research roadmap defining and prioritizing possible future public interest research and deployment efforts that would improve energy efficiency.

Although there are many opinions concerning the energy intensity of data centers and the aggregate effect on California"s electrical power systems, there is very little publicly available information. Through this project, actual energy consumption at its end use was measured in a number of data centers. This benchmark data was documented in case study reports, along with site-specific energy efficiency recommendations. Additionally, other data center energy benchmarks were obtained through synergistic projects, prior PG&E studies, and industry contacts. In total, energy benchmarks for sixteen data centers were obtained.

For this project, a broad definition of data center was adopted which included internet hosting, corporate, institutional, governmental, educational and other miscellaneous data centers. Typically these facilities require specialized infrastructure to provide high quality power and cooling for IT equipment. All of these data center types were considered in the development of an estimate of the total power consumption in California.

Finally, a research roadmap was developed through extensive participation with data center professionals, examination of case study findings, and participation in data center industry meetings and workshops. Industry partners enthusiastically provided valuable insight into current practice, and helped to identify areas where additional public interest research could lead to significant efficiency improvement. This helped to define and prioritize the research agenda. The interaction involved industry representatives with expertise in all aspects of data center facilities, including specialized facility infrastructure systems and computing equipment. In addition to the input obtained through industry workshops, LBNL"s participation in a three-day, comprehensive design charrette hosted by the Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) yielded a number of innovative ideas for future research.

Abstract: When California"s electric utilities began receiving requests for huge electrical demands for data center facilities, it became evident that little information existed to validate actual data center electrical performance, or to see how the energy performance could be improved. As a result, California utilities and the California Energy Commission became interested in learning more about the data center market. Utility case studies and preliminary investigations confirmed that research with the objective of reducing the large, continuous electrical loads in data centers was clearly merited, however the role of public interest research for these types of facilities was not clear.

To tackle this problem, the Public Interest Energy Research (PIER) Industrial Program set out to define and prioritize energy efficiency research areas by engaging Data Center Industry professionals. In preparation of this roadmap, researchers from Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (LBNL) facilitated workshops, participated in industry forums, and researched energy issues related to data centers. As the topics in the roadmap were developed, opportunities for California public interest research and market transformation activities were the primary focus. Other research and standardization activities by others were noted, and it will be important to keep abreast of their progress as the California research agenda is advanced. In addition, data center professionals identified other parts of the energy efficiency puzzle that must be solved by the industry itself due to the highly specialized nature of much of the equipment in data centers. Even though the research in these areas will proceed through industry efforts, public interest encouragement may accelerate the development and adoption of new innovations.

Abstract: A high-performance cleanroom should provide efficient energy performance in addition to effective contamination control. Energy-efficient designs can yield capital and operational cost savings, and can be part of a strategy to improve productivity in the cleanroom industry. Based upon in-situ measurement data from ISO Class 5 cleanrooms, this article discusses key factors affecting cleanroom air system performance and benefits of efficient airflow design in cleanrooms. Cleanroom HVAC systems used in the semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and healthcare industries are very energy intensive, requiring large volumes of cleaned air to remove or dilute contaminants for satisfactory operations. There is a tendency, however, to design excessive airflow rates into cleanroom HVAC systems, due to factors such as design conservatism, lack of thorough understanding of airflow requirements, concerns about cleanliness reliability, and potential design and operational liabilities.

Abstract: Cleanroom HVAC systems, especially those requiring fan filter units (FFU) for recirculating air, typically account for a large portion of energy use in cleanrooms. Performance of HVAC systems varies significantly from cleanroom to cleanroom largely because of various factors, such as contamination control requirements, air handling unit designs, air system resistance, and efficiency levels offered by system components. The studies not only uncovered energy-saving opportunities in many cleanroom applications, but also indicated that optimizing aerodynamic performance in air recirculation systems appears to be a useful approach to improve energy efficiency in cleanrooms.

Because of their ease of installation, adaptability, and specific contamination control schemes, fan-filter units are being used more and more in air recirculation systems in cleanrooms. The large number of small fans can consume considerable energy in providing air recirculation. Therefore, understanding the performance of FFUs is important and can help to promote best practices in cleanroom design and operation. To date, typical manufacturer"s data sheets usually contain claims that are seemingly similar; however, they usually do not reveal test methods, if at all exist. Furthermore, statements of performance data that include power, airflow, and sound are commonly vague and could be misleading. In recent years, industries have shown growing interest in having a uniform method for testing and reporting FFU performance. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) is performing research to improve energy efficiency in contamination control facilities such as cleanrooms. This project is to develop a standard testing method of evaluating the performance of a fan-filter unit (FFU).

This article describes the activities that LBNL has led in developing the standard for FFU"s energy performance. It also summarizes results of laboratory-measured performance of 20 fan filter units (FFUs) tested by Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI).

Abstract: The original scope of work was to obtain and analyze existing and emerging data in four states: California, Florida, New York, and Wisconsin. The goal of this data collection was to deliver a baseline database or recommendations for such a database that could possibly contain window and daylighting features and energy performance characteristics of Kindergarten through 12th grade (K-12) school buildings (or those of classrooms when available). In particular, data analyses were performed based upon the California Commercial End-Use Survey (CEUS) databases to understand school energy use, features of window glazing, and availability of daylighting in California K-12 schools.

The outcomes from this baseline task can be used to assist in establishing a database of school energy performance, assessing applications of existing technologies relevant to window and daylighting design, and identifying future R&D needs. These are in line with the overall project goals as outlined in the proposal.

Abstract: The paper presents results of laboratory-measured performance of fan-filter units (FFUs) used for cleanrooms. A total of twenty FFUs collected from the market were tested, including thirteen 1220 mm x 610 mm (or 4 ft x 2 ft) units and seven 1220 mm x 1220 mm (or 4 ft x 4 ft) units. The paper concludes that there are wide variations in FFUs" energy performance, and that there are opportunities in improving energy efficiency and lowering operating costs of FFUs. Furthermore, the paper suggests the benefits of having a uniform method for testing and reporting FFU performance. Such a testing method and recommended practice guideline is under development, with heavy input from FFU suppliers, users, and independent institutions that include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI), and Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST). An integrated approach with the participation from designers, suppliers, users, and utility companies can help to identify energy-efficient FFUs that are required for many cleanroom applications.

Abstract: The paper discusses the benefits of having a consistent testing method to characterize aerodynamic and energy performance of FFUs. It presents evaluation methods of laboratory-measured performance of ten relatively new, 1220 mm x 610 mm (or 4 ft x 2 ft) fan-filter units (FFUs), and includes results of a set of relevant metrics such as energy performance indices (EPI) based upon the sample FFUs tested. This paper concludes that there are variations in FFUs" performance, and that using a consistent testing and evaluation method can generate compatible and comparable FFU performance information. The paper also suggests that benefits and opportunities exist for our method of testing FFU energy performance to be integrated in future recommended practices.

Abstract: This paper presents in-situ measurement results for energy and environmental performance of thirteen cleanroom systems located in the USA, including key metrics for evaluating cleanroom air system performance and overall electric power intensity. Comparisons with the IEST Recommended Practice (IEST-RP-CC012.1) are made to examine the performance of cleanroom air systems. Based upon the results, the paper discusses likely opportunities for improving cleanroom energy efficiency while maintaining effective contamination control. The paper concludes that there are wide variations in energy performance of cleanroom environmental systems, and that performance benchmarking can serve as a vehicle to identify energy efficient cleanroom design practices and to highlight important issues in cleanroom operation and maintenance.

Abstract: Based on a review of airflow design factors and in-situ energy measurements in ISO Cleanliness Class-5 cleanrooms, this paper addresses the importance of energy efficiency in airflow design and opportunities of cost savings in cleanroom practices. The paper discusses design factors that can long lastingly affect cleanroom system performance, and demonstrates benefits of energy efficient cleanroom design from viewpoints of environmental control and business operations. The paper suggests that a high performance cleanroom should not only be effective in contamination control, but also be efficient in energy and environmental performance. The paper also suggests that energy efficient design practice stands to bring in immediate capital cost savings and operation cost savings, and should be regarded by management as a strategy to improve business bottom lines.

Abstract: A cleanroom is designed to control the concentration of airborne particles. As a result, large amount of cleaned air is often required to remove or dilute contaminants for satisfactory operations in critical cleanroom environment. Cleanroom environmental systems (HVAC systems) in semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and healthcare industries are much more energy intensive compared to their counterparts (HVAC systems) serving commercial buildings such as typical office buildings. There is a tendency in cleanroom design and operation, however, to provide excessive airflow rates by HVAC systems, largely due to design conservatism, lack of understanding in airflow requirements, and more often, concerns such as cleanliness reliability, design and operational liabilities. A combination of these likely factors can easily result in HVAC systems" over-design.

Energy use of cleanroom environmental systems varies with the system design, cleanroom functions, and critical parameter control including temperatures and humidities. In particular, cleanroom cleanliness requirements specified by cleanliness class, often cast large impact on energy use. A review of studies on cleanroom operation costs indicated that energy costs could amount to 65-75% of the total annual cost associated with cleanroom operation and maintenance in some European countries. Depending on cleanroom cleanliness classes, annual cleanroom electricity use for cooling and fan energy ranged approximately between 1,710 kWh/m2 and 10,200 kWh/m2 (or 160 kWh/ft2 and 950 kWh/ft2) in California, USA. Cleanroom fan energy use typically consumed half of total HVAC energy use in three states in the USA. For cleanrooms in a wafer-process semiconductor factory in Japan, HVAC systems used 43% of power consumption of an entire cleanroom factory, while air delivery systems account for 30% of the total power consumption. Fan energy use for cleanrooms of ISO Classes 3,4,5 collectively account for approximately 80% of the fan energy use for cleanrooms of all classes. It is evident that biggest factors dictating cleanroom operating energy costs often include the magnitude of cleanroom airflow and how efficiently the HVAC systems deliver the cleaned and conditioned air to cleanrooms.

Abstract: The California Energy Commission sponsored this roadmap to guide energy efficiency research and deployment for high performance cleanrooms and laboratories. Industries and institutions utilizing these building types (termed high-tech buildings) have played an important part in the vitality of the California economy. This roadmap"s key objective is to present a multi-year agenda to prioritize and coordinate research efforts. It also addresses delivery mechanisms to get the research products into the market.

Abstract: Laboratory buildings are characterized by the production of potentially hazardous fumes within the occupied space. The primary objective of a laboratory ventilation system is to isolate and protect the occupants from the fumes, as well as provide minimum outside air at a comfortable temperature. Fume removal results in the need for a large volume of conditioned make-up air, typically a significantly greater volume than required for space temperature conditioning purposes. The high quantity of exhaust naturally results in a once through system, which is also often required by codes that prohibit any recirculation in a laboratory space. The high costs associated with high airflow systems are magnified by the 24 hours a day, 356 days a year ventilation operation often seen in laboratory situations. All too often, the common design approach taken to laboratory mechanical systems results in a traditional office ventilation system upsized to meet a laboratory"s requirements.

Recognizing the unique aspects of laboratory requirements and operation is essential to optimizing the mechanical system. Figure 1 shows a breakdown of a laboratory building"s electricity use, based on a DOE 2 model of a baseline laboratory building design for Montana State University (Bozeman, MT).

In laboratory buildings, the largest and easiest target for energy use reduction is usually the ventilation energy. At about 50% of the buildings total electricity usage, a 15% reduction in the power required by the ventilation system would save more energy than eliminating all lighting energy. As the largest component of a laboratory"s energy consumption, the ventilation system is the first target to reduce the energy bill. Significantly improving the standard design efficiency of a ventilation system requires a lower air pressure drop system on both the supply and exhaust system.

Implementing low-pressure drop design strategies from the early stages of the design process will result in much lower energy costs throughout the system"s life with a minimal increase in first costs. The pressure drop in a laboratory ventilation system is influenced by many independent design challenges. Knowing what these design challenges are and how they can be answered to minimize pressure drop is critical in achieving an energy efficient laboratory.

Abstract: Laboratory buildings are characterized by the production of potentially hazardous fumes within the occupied space. The primary objective of a laboratory ventilation system is to isolate and protect the occupants from the fumes, as well as provide minimum outside air at a comfortable temperature. Fume removal results in the need for a large volume of conditioned make-up air, typically a significantly greater volume than required for space temperature conditioning purposes. The high quantity of exhaust naturally results in a once through system, which is also often required by codes that prohibit any recirculation in a laboratory space. The high costs associated with high airflow systems are magnified by the 24 hours a day, 356 days a year ventilation operation often seen in laboratory situations. All too often, the common design approach taken to laboratory mechanical systems results in a traditional office ventilation system upsized to meet a laboratory"s requirements.

Abstract: A utility market transformation project studied energy use and identified energy efficiency opportunities in cleanroom HVAC design and operation for fourteen cleanrooms. This paper presents the results of this work and relevant observations. Cleanroom owners and operators know that cleanrooms are energy intensive but have little information to compare their cleanroom"s performance over time, or to others. Direct comparison of energy performance by traditional means, such as watts/ft2, is not a good indicator with the wide range of industrial processes and cleanliness levels occurring in cleanrooms.

In this project, metrics allow direct comparison of the efficiency of HVAC systems and components. Energy and flow measurements were taken to determine actual HVAC system energy efficiency. The results confirm a wide variation in operating efficiency and they identify other non-energy operating problems. Improvement opportunities were identified at each of the benchmarked facilities. Analysis of the best performing systems and components is summarized, as are areas for additional investigation.

Abstract: The mission of this Cleanroom Energy Programming guide is to 1) elevate the importance of energy efficiency as a program requirement for cleanroom design, and 2) provide guidelines for decisions made early in a cleanroom design project to assist cleanroom owners, and designers to achieve energy efficiency while maintaining or improving other program requirements. The guide provides useful information at the programming phase of a project concerning issues that could have significant impact on energy use. It is intended to stimulate the programming team to make informed decisions to improve overall energy efficiency while addressing other program issues.

Abstract: High Tech industries that rely on buildings containing cleanrooms and laboratories are very important to California"s economy and have a large and growing influence upon Pacific Gas & Electric Company"s service territory. PG&E, realizing the importance of these industries and the large potential for energy efficiency savings, contracted with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) and Rumsey Engineers through the California Institute for Energy Efficiency (CIEE) to perform market transformation activities specifically targeted for energy intensive industrial buildings containing cleanrooms and laboratories. These activities have broad applicability to many of California"s industries and institutions. The industries utilizing these types of facilities include electronics (semiconductor, disc drive, flat panel display, and their suppliers), biotechnology, pharmaceutical, automotive, aerospace, health care, and foods.

Abstract: By developing metrics for evaluating cleanroom air system performance and overall load intensity, this paper provides energy benchmarking results for thirteen cleanroom environmental system performance, and identifies opportunities for improving cleanroom energy efficiency while maintaining or improving cleanroom contamination control. Comparisons with IEST Recommended Practice are made to examine the performance of cleanroom air systems. These results can serve as a vehicle to identify energy efficient cleanroom design practices and to highlight important issues in cleanroom operation and maintenance. Results from this study confirm that there are opportunities in improving energy efficiency of cleanroom environmental systems while maintaining effective contamination control.

Abstract: Fume hoods have long been used to protect workers from breathing harmful gases and particles, and are ubiquitous in pharmaceutical and biotechnology facilities, industrial shops, medical testing labs, university research labs, and high school chemistry labs. Fume hoods are box-like structures, often mounted at tabletop level with a movable window-like front called a sash. They capture, contain and exhaust hazardous fumes, drawn out of the hood by fans through a port at the top of the hood. Highlighting the systems nature of the fume hood design, high amounts of air flow tend to drive sizing (first cost) and energy use of central heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems in the buildings where hoods are located.

This report describes the technology development behind the Berkeley Hood, field trials demonstrating pollutant containment down to 34% of full flow, current R&D needs, and technology transfer work underway to continue moving the hood towards commercialization. Based on conservative assumptions, we have identified a preliminary U.S. electricity savings potential for the Berkeley Hood of $240 to $480 million annually, a number that would rise with the inclusion of space-heating fuel.

Abstract: Cleanrooms, critical to a wide range of industries, universities, and government facilities, are extremely energy intensive. Consequently, energy represents a significant operating cost for these facilities. Improving energy efficiency in cleanrooms will yield dramatic productivity improvement. But more importantly to the industries which rely on cleanrooms, base load reduction will also improve reliability. The number of cleanrooms in the US is growing and the cleanroom environmental systems" energy use is increasing due to increases in total square footage and trends toward more energy intensive, higher cleanliness applications. In California, many industries important to the State"s economy utilize cleanrooms. In California these industries utilize over 150 cleanrooms with a total of 4.2 million sq. ft. (McIlvaine). Energy intensive high tech buildings offer an attractive incentive for large base load energy reduction. Opportunities for energy efficiency improvement exist in virtually all operating cleanrooms as well as in new designs.

To understand the opportunities and their potential impact, Pacific Gas and Electric Company sponsored a project to benchmark energy use in cleanrooms in the electronics (high-tech) and biotechnology industries. Both of these industries are heavily dependent intensive cleanroom environments for research and manufacturing. In California these two industries account for approximately 3.6 million sq. ft. of cleanroom (McIlvaine, 1996) and 4349 GWh/yr. (Sartor et al. 1999). Little comparative energy information on cleanroom environmental systems was previously available. Benchmarking energy use allows direct comparisons leading to identification of best practices, efficiency innovations, and highlighting previously masked design or operational problems.

Abstract: Buildings with cleanrooms and laboratories are growing in terms of total floor area and energy intensity. This building type is common in institutions such as universities and in many industries such as microelectronics and biotechnology. These buildings, with high ventilation rates and special environmental considerations, consume from 4 to 100 times more energy per square foot than conventional commercial buildings. Owners and operators of such facilities know they are expensive to operate, but have little way of knowing if their facilities are efficient or inefficient. A simple comparison of energy consumption per square foot is of little value. A growing interest in benchmarking is also fueled by:

- A new U.S. Executive Order removing the exemption of federal laboratories from energy efficiency goals, setting a 25% savings target, and calling for baseline guidance to measure progress.

- A new U.S. EPA and U.S. DOE initiative, Laboratories for the 21st Century, establishing voluntary performance goals and criteria for recognition.

- A new PG&E market transformation program to improve energy efficiency in high tech facilities, including a cleanroom energy use benchmarking project.

- This paper identifies the unique issues associated with benchmarking energy use in high-tech facilities. Specific options discussed include statistical comparisons, point-based rating systems, model-based techniques, and hierarchical end-use and performance-metrics evaluations.

Abstract: On March 15, 1999, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory hosted a workshop focused on energy efficiency in Cleanroom facilities. The workshop was held as part of a multiyear effort sponsored by the California Institute for Energy Efficiency, and the California Energy Commission. It is part of a project that concentrates on improving energy efficiency in Laboratory type facilities including cleanrooms. The project targets the broad market of laboratory and cleanroom facilities, and thus cross-cuts many different industries and institutions. This workshop was intended to raise awareness by sharing case study success stories, providing a fomm for industry networking on energy issues, contributing LBNL expertise in research to date, determining barriers to implementation and possible solutions, and soliciting input for further research.

Abstract: The National Park Service (NPS) recently completed the implementation phase of its PowerSaving Partners (PSP) Demand Side Management (DSM) contract with the local utility, Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E). Through the DSM contract, NPS will receive approximately $4.1 million over eight years in payment for saving 61 kW of electrical demand, 179,000 kWh of electricity per year, and 1.1 million therms of natural gas per year. These payments are for two projects: the installation of high-efficiency lighting systems at the Thoreau Center for Sustainability and the replacement of an old central boiler plant with new, distributed boilers.

Although these savings and payments are substantial, the electrical savings and contract payments fall well short of the projected 1,700 kW of electrical demand, 8 million kWh of annual electricity savings, and $11 million in payments, anticipated at the project"s onset. Natural gas savings exceeded the initial forecast of 800,000 therms per year.

The DSM contract payments did not meet expectations for a variety of reasons which fall into two broad categories: first, many anticipated projects were not constructed, and second, some of the projects that were constructed were not included in the program because the cost of implementing the DSM program"s measurement and verification (M&V) requirements outweighed anticipated payments.

This paper discusses the projects implemented, and examines the decisions made to withdraw some of them from the DSM contract. It also presents the savings that were realized and documented through M&V efforts. Finally, it makes suggestions relative to M&V protocols to encourage all efficiency measures, not just those that are easy to measure.

Abstract: In 1994, the Bay Area Chapter of the Association of Energy Engineers organized a two-day design charrette for energy efficient redevelopment of buildings by the National Park Service (NPS) at the Presidio Army Base. This event brought together engineers, researchers, historical architects, government officials, and students in a participatory environment to apply their experience to creating guidelines for sustainable redesign of Presidio buildings.

The venue for the charette was a representative barracks building located in the Main Post area. Examination of this building allowed development of ideas both for the building and for the remainder of the facilities. The charrette was organized into a committee structure including: steering, measurement and monitoring, modeling, building envelope and historic preservation (architectural), HVAC and controls, lighting, presentation. Prior to the charrette itself, the modeling and measurement/monitoring committee developed substantial baseline data for the other committees. A systems-oriented approach was initiated through interaction between the committees and later through coordination of the committee reports in an ad hoc integration exercise.

The information developed in the charrette, combined with experience gained by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Applications Team in subsequent actual Presidio design assistance for the NPS, forms the basis for this report. Synergism with historical preservation considerations is emphasized. It is hoped that this document will contribute to the sustainable development of the Presidio and provide an advanced view of facility design which emphasizes optimization, an interdisciplinary integrated systems approach and interaction between phases of design.